Breakthrough: The Ideas That Changed the World

NARRATOR: FOR MOST OF OUR HISTORY, WE HUMANS CONSIDERED OURSELVES UNIQUE.

OUR ABILITY TO SHAPE THE WORLD WE LIVE IN SET US APART FROM ALL OTHER ANIMALS.

BUT NOW, A NEW, ARTIFICIAL SPECIES MIGHT CHALLENGE OUR SUPERIORITY.

MECHANICAL BEINGS HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CHANGE EVERYTHING.

HOW WE GOT THEM IS A STORY OF ASTONISHING TWISTS AND AMAZING TURNS.

IT WOULD TAKE AN ANCIENT GREEK LEGEND AND A CHANCE CONVERSATION IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL, A CHILD SHELTERED FROM THE EXCESSES OF HER FAMOUS FATHER, AND A MISSION TO MARS, A DISASTER AT SEA, AND A CUBIST PAINTER TO GIVE US THE MACHINE THAT MAY TURN OUT TO BE THE MOST REVOLUTIONARY TECHNOLOGY EVER CONCEIVED--THE ROBOT.

THESE ARE THE INVENTIONS THAT DEFINE OUR AGE AND HAVE CHANGED OUR WORLD FOREVER, THAT ALLOWED US TO MOVE BOTH ON THE GROUND AND IN THE AIR, TO CONNECT AND TO EXPLORE THE FURTHEST REGIONS OF THE UNIVERSE, EACH A MOMENT OF INGENUITY, OF WONDER... OH!

NARRATOR: OF BREAKTHROUGH.

NARRATOR: TODAY, ROBOTS ARE EVERYWHERE, EVEN IN MUSIC VIDEOS.

THEY BUILD CARS, ELECTRONICS, ANYTHING YOU CAN THINK OF.

WHILE SOME ARE BUILT TO ENTERTAIN, ALL EXPLORE THE LIMITS OF WHAT A MECHANICAL SYSTEM CAN ACHIEVE.

BUT THE AGE OF THE ROBOT IS JUST BEGINNING.

MAN: WHERE WE ARE WITH ROBOTS TODAY IS PROBABLY ABOUT WHERE WE WERE WITH COMPUTERS IN THE 1950s.

WE KNEW THE BASIC CONCEPTS, WE'VE BUILT SOME, THEY PERFORMED SOME FUNCTIONS, BUT WE'RE ONLY STARTING TO EXPLORE THE POSSIBILITY OF OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH THIS KIND OF MACHINE.

NARRATOR: A NEW BREED OF ROBOT IS TAKING SHAPE IN LABORATORIES ALL OVER THE WORLD, A KIND OF ROBOT THAT CAN DO MORE THAN JUST MAKE THINGS OR PERFORM REPETITIVE TASKS.

HEY, iCUB.

NARRATOR: THESE ARE ROBOTS THAT WILL INTERACT WITH US, BECOME OUR FRIENDS, OR PERHAPS OUR ENEMIES.

MEIGS: DO WE WANT ROBOTS AS FRIENDS?

DO WE WANT ROBOTS AS SEXUAL PARTNERS?

DO YOU WANT A PLANE THAT FLIES ITSELF, OR DO YOU WANT A PLANE WITH A ROBOT PILOT SITTING IN THE PILOT'S SEAT?

IT'S A REALLY FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION.

I ACTUALLY THINK THAT WE'RE GOING TO NEED A LOT MORE ROBOTS THAN PEOPLE EXPECT.

THEY'RE NOT GOING TO TAKE AWAY JOBS.

THEY'RE GOING TO FILL THE ROLE OF PREVIOUSLY EXPLOITED, LOW-COST LABOR.

NARRATOR: THESE NEW ROBOTS WILL FULFILL A DREAM THAT IS SURPRISINGLY ANCIENT.

IT BEGINS NOT HUNDREDS, BUT THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO, WITH THE ANCIENT GREEKS.

HOMER, WRITING IN 800 BC, TOLD THE LEGEND OF THE GREEK GOD OF FIRE AND CRAFTSMEN... [THUNDER] HEPHAESTUS.

THE STORY GOES THAT, EXPELLED FROM MOUNT OLYMPUS...

HE FORGED TWO MECHANICAL HANDMAIDENS.

THE TALE BECAME PART OF GREEK CULTURE, AND THE IDEA OF HUMAN-LIKE MACHINES WITH MIRACULOUS POWERS WAS BORN.

ABOUT 800 YEARS LATER, AN INVENTOR NAMED HERO OF ALEXANDRIA DECIDED TO MAKE THE DREAM COME TRUE.

HE DESIGNED MACHINES THAT COULD PROPEL THEMSELVES ONTO A STAGE.

FIGURINES WOULD PERFORM A SERIES OF ACTIONS, SUCH AS LIGHTING FIRES AND POURING WINE.

BUT IT WAS IN THE 9th CENTURY AD, USING LITTLE MORE THAN WOOD, WIRES, AND THEIR OWN GENIUS, THAT 3 BROTHERS BUILT A MACHINE THAT WOULD LEAD NOT JUST TO ROBOTS, BUT TO THE MODERN DIGITAL AGE.

MAN: IT HAPPENED HERE-- BAGHDAD, IN MESOPOTAMIA, MODERN-DAY IRAQ--AND HERE, THE HOUSE OF WISDOM, A LOOSE SOCIETY OF THINKERS THAT DEBATED AND ENCOURAGED THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE.

THREE OF THE MEMBERS ARE BROTHERS-- THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS.

THEY HAVE A PASSION FOR AUTOMATA, SO MUCH SO THAT THEY WROTE THIS, "THE BOOK OF INGENIOUS DEVICES," WHICH WAS THE GREATEST WORK OF ITS TIME ON THE SUBJECT OF AUTOMATA.

IT DESCRIBES A HUNDRED INVENTIONS.

SOME ARE THE WORK OF ANCIENT GREEK ENGINEERS, OTHERS HAD BEEN CREATED BY THE BROTHERS THEMSELVES.

AND THEN THEY DID SOMETHING EXTRAORDINARY, SOMETHING THAT SHONE A LIGHT FAR INTO THE FUTURE.

THERE ALREADY EXISTED MACHINES THAT COULD PLAY TUNES, BUT THE BROTHERS WONDERED HOW A MACHINE MIGHT BE MADE THAT COULD LEARN A NEW TUNE AND REPEAT IT.

THEY DESCRIBE THE MACHINE THEY MADE IN A TREATISE CALLED "THE INSTRUMENT THAT PLAYS BY ITSELF."

IT WAS A DESCRIPTION AND DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS AS TO HOW IT WAS MADE.

ONE MAN WENT LOOKING FOR THE MANUSCRIPT.

HE DECIDED TO REMAKE THE MACHINE, TO PRESERVE THE MEMORY AND THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS.

TODAY, THE MACHINE IS KEPT HERE, AT THE ZKM CENTER FOR ART AND MEDIA IN GERMANY.

SO, THIS IS IT?

MAN: YEP.

THAT'S A BANU MUSA MACHINE.

SO HOW CONFIDENT ARE YOU THAT THE MACHINE THAT YOU'VE BUILT IS AN ACCURATE DEPICTION OF WHAT THEY HAD PRODUCED?

YEAH, I'M PRETTY CONFIDENT THAT THEY EXPLAINED EVERY DETAIL INTO WHY THE DETAIL SHOULD BE LIKE THAT AND THE PRECISE MEASUREMENT, ALSO.

AL-KHALILI: ESSENTIALLY, WHAT THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS HAVE DONE IS BUILD TWO SEPARATE MACHINES.

ONE RECORDS THE MUSIC, AND THEN THAT GETS TRANSFERRED TO THE SECOND MACHINE, WHICH ACTUALLY PLAYS IT BACK AGAIN.

AL-KHALILI: OK, LIANG, TALK ME THROUGH HOW THIS PART OF THE MACHINE RECORDS THE SOUND.

OK, COULD YOU START IT BY PRESSING THE PRETTY LITTLE BUTTON?

AH, OK, SO THAT GETS THE DRUM MOVING, AND OF COURSE, WE'RE USING AN ELECTRIC MOTOR HERE.

YES.

THEY'D HAVE USED WATER PRESSURE.

EXACTLY.

RIGHT.

OK, SO YOU'RE GOING TO PLAY THE FLUTE, BUT YOU HAVE TO PUT YOUR FINGERS THROUGH THOSE RINGS AT THE SAME TIME.

YES.

OH, I SEE.

AS YOU PULL THEM DOWN, YOU'RE ACTUALLY PULLING A LEVER, WHICH IS ACTIVATING A PEN THAT MAKES A MARKING ON THE BARREL?

EXACTLY.

SO THE MARKINGS ON THE BARREL ARE A RECORD OF THE NOTES THAT YOU'VE PLAYED AND THE DURATION THAT YOU PLAYED THEM?

YES.

IT'S THE RECORD OF MY FINGER MOVEMENTS.

OK. [PLAYING A TUNE] [PLAYS AN OFF-KEY NOTE] HEH!

THAT'S PROBABLY AS MUCH AS WE WANT, REALLY, ISN'T IT?

[BOTH LAUGH] AND SO, ONCE YOU HAVE THE MARKINGS ON THE DRUM...

YES.

IT'S THEN TRANSFERRED ACROSS TO THE SECOND MACHINE.

ZHIPENG: YES, IT'S A PLAYER HERE, SO NOW WE HAVE ALL OF THE INFORMATION FROM MY FINGER MOVEMENTS HERE.

WE CARVE SOME GROOVES ACCORDING TO THE MARKS WE HAVE.

SO WHEN THIS DRUM TURNS, THE GROOVES ARE NOW GOING TO LIFT THESE LEVERS AND PLAY THE SAME TUNE ON THIS SECOND FLUTE?

EXACTLY.

SO LET'S LISTEN.

OK. [NOTES PLAYING] SO THOSE GROOVES, THE MARKINGS, ARE ESSENTIALLY THE VERY FIRST COMPUTER PROGRAM.

MM-HMM.

LOOKS LIKE A HARD DRIVE, AND IT IS A HARD DRIVE.

[PLAYING NOTES] AL-KHALILI: NOW, THIS MAY NOT SEEM LIKE A WORLD-CHANGING IDEA, BUT IF YOU THINK ABOUT IT, THIS REALLY IS A PROGRAMMABLE MACHINE.

AND ALL THIS OVER A THOUSAND YEARS BEFORE MODERN COMPUTERS WERE BUILT.

IT ALSO SEEMS THAT THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS HAD THIS GREAT SENSE OF THEATRE AND FUN BECAUSE IN THEIR BOOK, THEY TALK ABOUT HIDING THE WHOLE CONTRAPTION INSIDE A MANNEQUIN, WHERE THE LEVERS ARE DISGUISED AS ITS FINGERS, AND THE FLUTE IS ATTACHED TO ITS MOUTH, WHERE THE AIR COMES IN.

AND SO YOU CAN IMAGINE WHAT A SPECTACLE THIS WOULD HAVE BEEN, HAVING THIS ROBOT PLAYING THE MUSIC IN THE CALIPH'S PALACE.

[NOTES PLAYING] NARRATOR: MACHINES THAT MIMIC HUMAN ACTIONS HAVE FASCINATED US FOR GENERATIONS.

AND AFTER NEARLY 900 YEARS OF EFFORT, THEY PERHAPS REACHED THEIR PINNACLE WITH THIS, THE WRITER.

MADE IN SWITZERLAND IN THE 1770s, IT HAS 6,000 MOVING PARTS.

THIS REMARKABLE AUTOMATON CAN WRITE SEQUENCES OF TEXT UP TO 40 CHARACTERS IN LENGTH.

THE TEXT WAS PROGRAMMED USING METAL PLATES, INSTALLED IN THE CLOCKWORK MECHANISM IN THE MACHINE'S BACK.

THE WRITER WAS EVEN ABLE TO DIP HIS QUILL IN INK AND GIVE IT A DELICATE SHAKE TO REMOVE THE EXCESS.

BUT AUTOMATA ARE NOT QUITE ROBOTS.

THEY CAN'T LEARN AND CHANGE THEIR OWN BEHAVIOR.

A TRUE ROBOT NEEDS TO BE ABLE TO PROCESS INFORMATION SO IT CAN TAKE ACTIONS OF ITS OWN.

IT NEEDS TO BE A MACHINE THAT CAN THINK.

[SURF CRASHING] AND IT WOULD TAKE A CRISIS IN NAUTICAL NAVIGATION AND A MOST UNLIKELY FRIENDSHIP-- BETWEEN THE DAUGHTER OF ENGLAND'S MOST NOTORIOUS POET AND A PROFESSOR MORE THAN TWICE HER AGE... TO SET THE COGS OF A THINKING MACHINE IN MOTION.

WOMAN: THERE'S SOMETHING REALLY WONDERFUL TO ME IN THE STORY OF THESE TWO VERY, VERY DIFFERENT PEOPLE-- THE MATHEMATICS PROFESSOR WHO'S QUITE CRANKY AND SERIOUS AND LOGICAL, AND THEN THERE'S THIS YOUNG SOCIETY GIRL.

THEY WERE SO ALIKE IN MANY WAYS, BUT THEY WERE SO DIFFERENT IN OTHER WAYS, AND IT CREATED THIS WONDERFUL MOMENT OF NEWNESS, IMAGINATION, AND INVENTION.

NARRATOR: IT BEGAN IN THE EARLY 19th CENTURY...

WHEN THE BRITISH NAVY WAS THE LARGEST IN THE WORLD.

SHIPS NAVIGATED BY THE STARS.

TO SAVE SAILORS FROM PERFORMING COMPLICATED CALCULATIONS AT SEA, THEY USED TABLES TO LOOK UP THE ANSWER THEY NEEDED, BUT THE PROBLEM WAS THE TABLES OFTEN CONTAINED MISTAKES.

AFTER ALL, THEY WERE COMPILED BY HUMANS.

IF THE TABLES WERE WRONG, IT WOULD THROW OFF THE NAVIGATION WITH DEVASTATING RESULTS.

[CRASH] [CLOCK TICKING] [CHIMING] NARRATOR: ENTER CHARLES BABBAGE.

THE SON OF A BANKER, WHO LOVED AUTOMATA AS A CHILD, BABBAGE STUDIED MATHEMATICS AT CAMBRIDGE.

IN THE 1820s, HE WAS EMPLOYED CHECKING ASTRONOMICAL LOG TABLES FOR SHIP NAVIGATION.

IT WAS DULL WORK, AND HE WAS FRUSTRATED BY THE NUMBER OF MISTAKES HE WAS FINDING.

HE EXCLAIMED TO A FRIEND, JOHN HERSCHEL...

WISH TO GOD THESE NUMBERS COULD BE COMPUTED BY STEAM.

NARRATOR: HERSCHEL REPLIES, DRILY...

IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE.

[CLOCK CONTINUES CHIMING] PADUA: WITH HERSCHEL'S WORDS FRESH IN HIS EARS, BABBAGE BEGINS TO DESIGN A MACHINE.

HE CALLS IT A DIFFERENCE ENGINE, ESSENTIALLY A MECHANICAL ADDING MACHINE POWERED BY A HAND CRANK THAT COULD CALCULATE LOG TABLES.

IT'S A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA, LITERALLY THE MECHANIZATION OF THOUGHT.

NARRATOR: IF THE CALCULATION COULD BE BROKEN DOWN INTO A SERIES OF SIMPLE STEPS, EACH OF WHICH COULD BE DONE BY MACHINE, THEN HUMAN ERROR COULD BE ERADICATED, AND LIVES COULD BE SAVED.

BABBAGE GOT FUNDING FROM THE GOVERNMENT-- �17,000--WORTH MORE THAN $5 MILLION DOLLARS TODAY.

HE HIRED ONE OF THE FINEST ENGINEERS IN ENGLAND TO HELP HIM, BUT THE TWO MEN HAD A FALLING OUT AFTER JUST A FRACTION OF THE MACHINE WAS BUILT.

THAT SECTION IS STILL PRESERVED IN LONDON'S SCIENCE MUSEUM.

PADUA: IT'S AT THE VERY, VERY CUTTING EDGE OF VICTORIAN ENGINEERING.

UNFORTUNATELY, HE RAN OUT OF MONEY BEFORE HE COULD EVER FINISH IT, BUT HE DID FINISH THIS BEAUTIFUL PROTOTYPE, WHICH DOES ACTUALLY WORK.

IT CAN ADD NUMBERS AND RUN VERY BEAUTIFULLY, BUT THE ACTUAL MACHINE WAS NEVER FINISHED.

NARRATOR: HOWEVER, USING BABBAGE'S PLANS...

IN 2002, THE SCIENCE MUSEUM ACTUALLY BUILT THE ENTIRE MACHINE.

BY CRANKING A HANDLE, THE ROWS OF NUMBERS MOVE, CARRYING THE TENS IN THE CALCULATION AS THEY GO.

THIS IS A MACHINE SOLVING A PROBLEM, THE FORERUNNER OF THE DEVICE THAT WOULD GIVE THE ROBOT ITS BRAIN.

AT THE FAR END, A PRINTER PUNCHES OUT THE ANSWER.

PADUA: I JUST LOVE TO SEE THAT MACHINE WORKING.

IT'S SO BEAUTIFUL.

EVERY SINGLE PART OF IT WORKS IN HARMONY WITH THE WHOLE REST OF THE MACHINE.

I COULD WATCH THAT THING ALL DAY.

AND YOU THINK ABOUT WHAT EACH LITTLE PART IS DOING AND HOW THEY'RE ALL WORKING TOGETHER.

I THINK HE JUST REALLY, REALLY LOVED THE DANCE OF THE MACHINERY.

FAST-FORWARD TO JUNE 1833, AND CHARLES BABBAGE IS NOW A CAMBRIDGE PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AND A MEMBER OF LONDON HIGH SOCIETY.

HE'S HOSTING ONE OF HIS FAMOUS PARTIES HERE AT HIS HOUSE ON DORSET STREET.

[PIANO PLAYING] NARRATOR: AMONG HIS FRIENDS AND ACQUAINTANCES WERE LUMINARIES SUCH AS MICHAEL FARADAY, CHARLES DARWIN, AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE SCIENTIFIC ELITE.

BUT THIS EVENING, IT WAS A CHANCE MEETING WITH A YOUNG WOMAN THAT WOULD SPARK A BREAKTHROUGH IN THE WORLD OF IDEAS.

PADUA: THE WOMAN'S NAME WAS ADA BYRON.

HER FATHER WAS THE FAMOUS ROMANTIC POET, LORD BYRON.

HE HAD MARRIED ADA'S MOTHER, BUT THEN FLED WHEN SHE WAS ONLY ONE MONTH OLD.

NARRATOR: LORD BYRON WAS FAMOUSLY DESCRIBED AS "MAD, BAD, AND DANGEROUS TO KNOW," BUT ADA'S MOTHER WAS DETERMINED TO STOP HER DAUGHTER FROM BEING "CREATIVE" LIKE HER FATHER.

INSTEAD OF ENGLISH, SHE MADE SURE THAT ADA WAS TUTORED IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS FROM AN EARLY AGE.

ADA SOON TURNED OUT TO BE A PRODIGY.

PADUA: AGED JUST 17 WHEN SHE ATTENDED BABBAGE'S PARTY, ADA SAW BABBAGE DEMONSTRATE THE SMALL PART OF THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE THAT HE HAD MANAGED TO BUILD.

NARRATOR: LOOKING AT THE COMPLICATED MACHINERY, ADA WAS CAPTIVATED, AND A FRIEND LATER RECALLED... MAN: "WHILE THE OTHER VISITORS GAZED AT THE WORKINGS "OF THIS BEAUTIFUL INSTRUMENT WITH THE SORT OF EXPRESSION "AND FEELING THAT SOME SAVAGES ARE SAID TO HAVE SHOWN ON FIRST SEEING A LOOKING GLASS..." "MISS BYRON, YOUNG AS SHE WAS, "UNDERSTOOD ITS WORKINGS AND SAW THE GREAT BEAUTY OF THE INVENTION."

NARRATOR: ADA AND CHARLES BABBAGE STRUCK UP A LIFELONG FRIENDSHIP.

THEY BEGAN TO CORRESPOND REGULARLY, BUT SOON ADA'S LIFE MOVED ON.

PADUA: IN 1835, ADA MARRIED A MAN CALLED WILLIAM KING.

HE BROUGHT HER HERE TO THE HOME HE BUILT FOR HER, HORSLEY MANOR, AND SHE BECAME THE COUNTESS OF LOVELACE.

NARRATOR: ADA GAVE BIRTH TO 3 CHILDREN IN QUICK SUCCESSION, BUT ALL THE WHILE, SHE CONTINUED HER STUDY OF MATHEMATICS.

PADUA: I THINK, FOR HER, THIS ROLE OF COUNTESS WITH A BIG COUNTRY ESTATE WAS A BIT OF A CAGE, SO IT DIDN'T REALLY SUIT HER PERSONALITY.

SHE WAS A VERY BOLD, INDEPENDENT PERSON IN A ROLE THAT THAT WAS QUITE TRICKY.

CHARLES BABBAGE, IN THE MEANTIME, WAS DREAMING UP A NEW MACHINE, A MORE SOPHISTICATED VERSION OF THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE HE CALLED THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE.

NARRATOR: 45 FEET LONG AND 15 FEET HIGH, BABBAGE IMAGINED THE ENGINE WOULD BE POWERED BY STEAM.

IT WAS CONCEIVED TO SOLVE A RANGE OF MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS.

BABBAGE HAD DESIGNED A REMARKABLE MACHINE, BUT HE WAS NOT THE ONE WHO REALIZED ITS TRUE POTENTIAL.

THAT INSIGHT LAY WITH ADA LOVELACE.

NARRATOR: IN 1842, ADA WAS ASKED TO TRANSLATE AN ARTICLE WRITTEN BY AN ITALIAN PROFESSOR DESCRIBING BABBAGE'S ANALYTICAL ENGINE.

AT THE END OF THE TRANSLATION, SHE ADDED HER OWN APPENDICES.

HER WORK WAS PUBLISHED IN A BOOK CALLED "TAYLOR'S SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS."

PADUA: ADA REALIZED THAT THE MACHINE COULD OPERATE ON THINGS OTHER THAN NUMBERS IF THEY OBEYED LOGICAL RULES, SO, FOR EXAMPLE, MUSIC.

SHE WRITES HERE THAT "THE ENGINE MIGHT COMPOSE "ELABORATE AND SCIENTIFIC PIECES OF MUSIC OF ANY DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY OR EXTENT."

SHE ALSO IMAGINED HOW THE MACHINE WOULD WEAVE ALGEBRAICAL PATTERNS, JUST AS THE JACQUARD LOOM WEAVES FLOWERS AND LEAVES.

NARRATOR: LOVELACE'S ANALYSIS SHOWED THAT THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE COULD BE APPLIED TO ANY NUMBER OF TASKS.

IT WOULD BE THE BEGINNINGS OF A SYNTHETIC MIND.

ADA LOVELACE REALIZED THAT WHAT BABBAGE HAD DESIGNED IS WHAT MANY CONSIDER THE WORLD'S FIRST UNIVERSAL COMPUTER.

AND THIS IS A TABLE THAT'S OFTEN DESCRIBED AS THE FIRST-EVER COMPUTER PROGRAM.

IN THE DESIGN OF THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE, ADA LOVELACE HAD SEEN THE FUTURE.

SHE BELIEVED THAT MACHINES WOULD BE ABLE TO DO ANYTHING, EXCEPT COME UP WITH ORIGINAL THOUGHTS.

NARRATOR: BUT IN 1852, ADA DIED YOUNG AT THE AGE OF 36.

HER OBSERVATIONS, WRITTEN AS AN APPENDIX TO A BOOK ABOUT A THINKING MACHINE THAT WAS NEVER ACTUALLY BUILT, UNDERSTANDABLY FELL INTO OBSCURITY.

AND THE IDEA OF PUTTING SUCH A MACHINE INTO A MECHANICAL BODY WAS UNHEARD OF; AFTER ALL, AT THE TIME, THE WORD "ROBOT" DID NOT EVEN EXIST.

BUT THAT WOULD CHANGE, DUE TO A YOUNG CUBIST PAINTER WORKING IN PRAGUE IN 1920.

JOSEF CAPEK WAS AT HIS EASEL WHEN HIS BROTHER KAREL, WHO WAS A PLAYWRIGHT, RUSHED UP TO HIM WITH AN IDEA FOR A NEW PLAY.

IT WAS ABOUT A BREED OF SYNTHETIC MEN WHO RISE UP AGAINST THEIR HUMAN OVERLORDS.

THE TROUBLE WAS, HE COULDN'T THINK OF WHAT TO CALL THEM.

JOSEF PAUSED FOR A MOMENT AND REMEMBERED AN OLD SLAVIC WORD FOR FORCED LABOR, PRONOUNCED "ROBOTA."

"CALL THEM ROBOTS," HE SAID.

THE PLAY WAS CALLED "ROSSUM'S UNIVERSAL ROBOTS"... AND IT WAS A GREAT SUCCESS, PUTTING THE WORD "ROBOT" INTO LANGUAGES ALL OVER THE WORLD.

FIRE!

NARRATOR: WITHIN A DECADE, THE CONCEPT OF THE ROBOT AS AN ARTIFICIAL, INTERACTIVE, SELF-DETERMINED MACHINE TOOK ROOT IN POPULAR CULTURE.

[BARKING] NARRATOR: BUT HOW COULD SUCH A MACHINE ACTUALLY BE BUILT?

MAKING A METAL HUMAN MOVE WAS ONE THING, BUT HOW TO GET IT TO MAKE SENSE OF ITS SURROUNDINGS, TO PERFORM USEFUL ACTIONS-- THAT SEEMED IMPOSSIBLE UNTIL, IN 1935, A YOUNG MAN WENT FOR A JOG.

MEIGS: AS A TECH REPORTER, THIS NEXT REVOLUTION REALLY FASCINATES ME BECAUSE IT UNDERPINS SO MUCH OF THE TECHNOLOGY THAT IS SHAPING THE 21st CENTURY.

NARRATOR: IN THE EARLY SUMMER, A SKILLED ATHLETE AND MATHEMATICIAN WAS RUNNING ALONG THE BANKS OF THE RIVER CAM NEAR CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND.

MEIGS: OCCUPYING HIS THOUGHTS WAS A CHALLENGE THAT WAS TAXING SOME OF THE BRIGHTEST MINDS OF HIS DAY-- ONE OF THE LAST GREAT PROBLEMS OF MATHEMATICS.

NARRATOR: THE RUNNER'S NAME WAS ALAN TURING, AT THE TIME A FELLOW AT CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

THE PROBLEM HE WAS WONDERING ABOUT CONCERNED THE LIMITS OF MATHEMATICS ITSELF.

RESTING HERE BY THE RIVER NEAR GRANTCHESTER, TURING HAD AN IDEA THAT DIDN'T JUST SOLVE HIS MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM, BUT IT WOULD CHANGE THE WORLD OF TECHNOLOGY FOREVER.

NARRATOR: HE IMAGINED A MACHINE THAT CARRIED A PROGRAM IN ITS MEMORY, A DEVICE THAT COULD SOLVE ANY PROBLEM THAT COULD BE DESCRIBED MATHEMATICALLY.

THE IDEA BECAME KNOWN AS A UNIVERSAL TURING MACHINE, OR UNIVERSAL COMPUTER.

MEIGS: TURING WROTE UP HIS BIG IDEA IN A PAPER PUBLISHED IN 1936 AND KICKED OFF A REVOLUTION.

HE WASN'T JUST SOLVING A PARTICULAR MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM, HE WAS INVENTING A COMPUTER LANGUAGE THAT COULD BE APPLIED TO A WHOLE UNIVERSE OF PROBLEMS.

[BIRDS CHIRPING] NARRATOR: TURING REALIZED HIS THEORETICAL MACHINE WOULD BE LIKE AN ARTIFICIAL BRAIN, ABLE TO SOLVE ANY PROBLEM THAT WAS DEFINED BY REASON AND LOGIC.

MEIGS: TURING'S NEXT QUESTION WAS WHETHER SUCH A MACHINE COULD BE PHYSICALLY CONSTRUCTED.

BUT BEFORE HE COULD GET STARTED ON THE PROBLEM, WORLD WAR II INTERVENED.

BRITAIN'S VERY SURVIVAL WAS UNDER THREAT FROM NAZI GERMANY.

[NEWSREEL ANNOUNCER SPEAKING INDISTINCTLY] NARRATOR: TURING'S GENIUS WAS TURNED TO CODE-BREAKING-- TRYING TO CRACK THE ENCRYPTED MESSAGES THAT THE NAZIS USED TO COMMUNICATE.

IT WAS VITAL WORK.

BUT ALL DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR, TURING KEPT THINKING ABOUT THE POSSIBILITIES OF A COMPUTING MACHINE.

COULD IT PLAY CHESS?

COULD IT MAKE MUSIC?

COULD IT PREDICT THE WEATHER?

HIS IDEAS WERE ALREADY HELPING TURN THE TIDE OF WAR; MAYBE THEY COULD TRANSFORM OTHER AREAS OF LIFE AS WELL.

NARRATOR: BY THE END OF WORLD WAR II, SCIENTISTS WERE SCRAMBLING TO BE THE FIRST TO BUILD THE MACHINE.

ONE OF THE EARLIEST WAS BUILT IN 1948, HERE IN MANCHESTER.

AT THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY IS A WORKING REPLICA OF THAT REVOLUTIONARY MACHINE... CALLED, WITHOUT IRONY, THE BABY.

AS BABIES GO, HOWEVER, IT WAS A BIG ONE.

17 FEET LONG AND OVER 7 FEET TALL, IT WEIGHED ONE TON.

IT RAN ON 550 VACUUM TUBES.

MOST IMPORTANTLY, IT HAD A MEMORY CAPABLE OF STORING INSTRUCTIONS.

IT WAS ABLE TO HOLD NOT JUST THE DATA TO BE COMPUTED, BUT ALSO THE PROGRAM ITSELF.

MEIGS: CHRIS BURTON, WHO SUPERVISED THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE MANCHESTER BABY COMPUTER, IS SHOWING ME HOW THE ORIGINAL PROGRAM WOULD BE INSERTED INTO THE SYSTEM.

IN ORDER TO SOLVE THEIR PROBLEM, THE PROGRAMMERS WOULD HAVE TO FIRST WRITE OUT THE CODE IN BINARY FORM ON A PIECE OF PAPER AND THEN ENTER IT INTO THE MEMORY.

SO, AS CHRIS FLIPS THESE SWITCHES, HE'S PICKING DIFFERENT LINES OF MEMORY, AND THEN THESE RED BUTTONS ACTUALLY ENTER THE BINARY CODE.

NARRATOR: THE DATA WAS STORED NOT ON WOODEN WHEELS OR METAL COGS, BUT ON THE SURFACE OF A TELEVISION TUBE AS A SERIES OF DOTS AND DASHES, AND THEN DISPLAYED ON A SIMILAR TUBE IN FRONT OF THE OPERATOR.

MEIGS: CHRIS HAS ENTERED ONE OF THE EARLY PROGRAMS THEY USED TO DEMONSTRATE THE MACHINE'S CAPABILITIES.

AND WHAT IS THE NUMBER THAT WE HAVE ENTERED?

WELL, THIS NUMBER WE PUT IN IS 999, AND WE WANT TO FIND THE LARGEST NUMBER THAT DIVIDES THAT EXACTLY, AND WE CAN READ OFF THE ANSWER OFF THE SCREEN.

SO CAN WE RUN IT?

YES, INDEED.

BURTON: SO IF YOU START THE PROGRAM RUNNING BY PUSHING THAT FROM STOP TO RUN.

PRESS IT DOWN.

OK, I'M GOING TO GIVE IT A GO.

BURTON: NOW WE CAN SEE THE PROGRAM RUNNING BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE DOTS ON THE SCREEN, AND EVENTUALLY IT WILL FIND THE ANSWER AND WARN US WITH A LIGHT AND A HOOTER.

MEIGS: NOW, WHAT'S KEY HERE IS THAT THE COMPUTER IS STORING YOUR INPUT.

THAT WAS REALLY-- THE KEY WAS THERE'S A MEMORY WITH A MEMORY TO REMEMBER THE PROGRAM.

AND IT'S RANDOM ACCESS...

INDEED.

WHICH MEANS THEY CAN GET DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PROGRAM AS NEEDED.

THERE WERE NO PUNCH CARDS, THERE'S NO TAPE.

EVERYTHING'S AVAILABLE FOR THE COMPUTER TO RUN AS FAST AS POSSIBLE.

AT ELECTRONIC SPEEDS.

MICRO-SECOND SPEEDS.

THAT'S CRITICAL.

SO THIS WAS REALLY THE DAWN OF THE MODERN COMPUTER?

VERY MUCH SO.

I WOULD SAY THAT YOU CAN'T GO TO ANY EARLIER MACHINE THAN THIS THAT HAD THE RIGHT CHARACTERISTICS.

[CHIME] THE MACHINE'S STOPPED, AND THERE IS THE ANSWER ON THAT LINE THERE-- 110101.

OK, BUT I DON'T READ BINARY CODE.

YOU HAVE TO KNOW THAT THAT MEANS 43.

[CHUCKLING] OK.

SO IT SOLVED THE PROBLEM.

THE HIGHEST FACTOR OF 989 IS 43.

EXACTLY.

WHAT WE HAVE HERE IN THIS BABY COMPUTER IS A REAL REVOLUTION IN TECHNOLOGY.

THIS IS TURING'S DREAM OF A UNIVERSAL COMPUTER NOW COME TO LIFE AND PROVED TO WORK IN THE REAL WORLD.

NARRATOR: THE "BABY" FOLLOWED A FIXED PROGRAM, BUT UNLIKE AN AUTOMATON, IT PROVED THAT A MACHINE COULD SOLVE COMPLEX PROBLEMS.

IT RAISED AN EXTRAORDINARY POSSIBILITY, ONE THAT TURING COULD CLEARLY SEE... A TECHNOLOGY THAT WOULD CHANGE THE WORLD-- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.

IN 1951, TURING DID A RADIO BROADCAST TITLED "CAN DIGITAL COMPUTERS THINK?"

THIS IS A COPY OF HIS ORIGINAL ANNOTATED SCRIPT, FROM THE TURING ARCHIVE AT CAMBRIDGE, AND IT'S FASCINATING.

IN THE BROADCAST, TURING REFERENCED ADA LOVELACE, WHO SAID THAT A COMPUTER SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO WHATEVER WE PROGRAM IT TO PERFORM.

MEIGS: SHE ALSO SAID, "IT HAS NO PRETENTIONS WHATSOEVER TO ORIGINATE ANYTHING."

WELL, HE DISAGREED.

HE WONDERED, WHAT IF A COMPUTER COULD HAVE AN ORIGINAL IDEA?

WHAT IF A COMPUTER COULD SURPRISE US?

DIGITAL COMPUTERS HAVE OFTEN BEEN DESCRIBED AS MECHANICAL BRAINS.

MOST SCIENTISTS PROBABLY REGARD THIS DESCRIPTION AS... TURING THOUGHT YOU COULD SET UP A TEST.

HE CALLED IT "THE IMITATION GAME."

IT IS PROBABLE, FOR INSTANCE, THAT AT THE END OF THE CENTURY, IT WILL BE POSSIBLE TO PROGRAM A MACHINE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS IN... MEIGS: THE IDEA WAS THAT YOU COULD PROGRAM A COMPUTER TO HAVE A CONVERSATION WITH A HUMAN BEING.

AND WHAT IF THE COMPUTER COULD CONVINCE THE HUMAN THAT IT, TOO, WAS HUMAN?

WOULDN'T THAT ABILITY TO DECEIVE CONSTITUTE INTELLIGENCE?

...IT WILL BE EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO GUESS WHETHER THE ANSWERS ARE BEING GIVEN BY A MAN OR BY A MACHINE.

MEIGS: TURING TURNED THE DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE UPSIDE DOWN.

INSTEAD OF WORRYING ABOUT WHAT MYSTERIOUS THINGS WERE HAPPENING INSIDE THE HUMAN BRAIN, HE FOCUSED ON THE RESULTS IN THE REAL WORLD.

IF SOMETHING DISPLAYED THE QUALITIES WE THINK OF AS "INTELLIGENCE," THEN YOU'D HAVE TO CALL IT INTELLIGENT.

IT DIDN'T REALLY MATTER WHETHER IT CAME FROM BRAIN CELLS OR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.

IF ANY MACHINE CAN APPROPRIATELY BE DESCRIBED AS A BRAIN, THEN ANY DIGITAL COMPUTER CAN BE SO DESCRIBED.

MEIGS: TURING'S IMITATION GAME SOON BECAME KNOWN AS THE "TURING TEST" AND WOULD BE A KEY BENCHMARK IN THE SEARCH FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.

BUT IN THE EARLY 1950s, IT WAS A REVOLUTIONARY CONCEPT.

...SUCH A PROGRAM WILL BE FOUND... MEIGS: PEOPLE WERE STILL JUST LEARNING THE BASICS OF WORKING WITH COMPUTERS, AND TURING WAS ALREADY DREAMING OF INTELLIGENT MACHINES.

THE WHOLE THINKING PROCESS IS STILL RATHER MYSTERIOUS TO ME, BUT I BELIEVE THAT THE ATTEMPT TO MAKE A THINKING MACHINE WILL HELP US GREATLY IN FINDING OUT HOW WE THINK OURSELVES.

NARRATOR: ALAN TURING SEEMED SET TO CHANGE THE WORLD, BUT IN 1954, HE WAS FOUND POISONED IN HIS BED.

THE OFFICIAL VERDICT WAS SUICIDE.

TURING'S LEGACY RAISED THE POSSIBILITY OF COMPLEX COMPUTERS INSIDE ROBOTS, IMITATING LIFE.

BUT OTHERS WONDERED IF THE SAME RESULT COULD BE ACHIEVED WITH A VERY DIFFERENT APPROACH.

WHAT WAS THE SIMPLEST MACHINE THAT COULD IMITATE ANIMAL BEHAVIOR?

THE IDEA WAS INSPIRED BY A CHANCE CONVERSATION IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL.

AS AN ELECTRONICS ENGINEER, ONE OF THE THINGS THAT I FIND FASCINATING ABOUT THE NEXT STEP IN THE STORY OF ROBOTS IS THAT IT WAS INSPIRED BY THE WORLD OF BIOLOGY, RATHER THAN MATHEMATICS OR ENGINEERING.

THE MAN BEHIND IT WAS A NEUROPHYSIOLOGIST CALLED WILLIAM GREY WALTER.

NARRATOR: BORN IN KANSAS CITY IN 1910, GREY WALTER PIONEERED DEVELOPMENTS IN MACHINES THAT RECORD ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN THE BRAIN.

IN 1939, GREY WALTER BEGAN WORKING IN BRISTOL AT THE BURDEN NEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE-- A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL-- WHERE HE CONTINUED HIS RESEARCH INTO THE MYSTERIES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN.

NARRATOR: IN A CHANCE CONVERSATION WITH A PSYCHOLOGIST, WALTER HIT ON AN IDEA-- ALTHOUGH OUR BRAINS ARE HIGHLY COMPLEX, COULD SIMPLER BIOLOGICAL CREATURES OWE THEIR ABILITIES TO THE WAY THAT THEY ARE WIRED TOGETHER, USING VERY FEW CONNECTIONS?

HOW SIMPLE A SYSTEM, HE WONDERED, COULD GENERATE WHAT WE WOULD CALL "BEHAVIOR"?

NOW HE WONDERED IF HE COULD REPLICATE THAT CONCEPT IN A MACHINE.

COULD HE BUILD A KIND OF ELECTRICAL CREATURE, ONE THAT HAD VERY BASIC SENSES AND RESPONSES?

AND IF HE COULD, HOW WOULD IT BEHAVE?

WOULD IT BEHAVE LIKE A BIOLOGICAL ANIMAL?

NARRATOR: HERE AT BRISTOL ROBOTICS LABORATORY, PROFESSOR OWEN HOLLAND HAS MADE A MODERN-DAY REPLICA OF GREY WALTER'S LANDMARK CREATION, WHICH HE CALLED THE TORTOISE BECAUSE, AT LEAST IN PART, IT TAUGHT US.

OWEN, HI.

HI.

I'M DANIELLE.

OH, HI, DANIELLE.

LOVELY TO MEET YOU.

SO THIS IS ONE OF THEM.

MEET THE TORTOISE, YES.

MARVELOUS.

OK, SO SHOW ME HOW IT WORKS.

IF I PUT THE SHELL ON, THEN YOU WILL BE ABLE TO SEE HOW IT WORKS, SO... OK. NARRATOR: THE TORTOISE HAS ONLY TWO SENSES.

THE FIRST IS SIMPLY A SWITCH.

HOLLAND: WHEN IT HITS ANYTHING, IT OPERATES A SWITCH, THEN IT WILL ALTERNATELY TRY AND GO IN ONE DIRECTION, TURN, GO IN ANOTHER DIRECTION, TURN, AND EVENTUALLY IT WILL ESCAPE FROM IT.

NARRATOR: THE SECOND SENSE IS A LIGHT DETECTOR ON TOP, WHICH SCANS THE ENVIRONMENT, LOOKING FOR A LIGHT SOURCE.

IF IT FINDS ONE, A VERY SIMPLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DRIVES THE ROBOT TOWARDS IT.

GEORGE: OK, SO WITH THAT ON, IF I SHONE A LIGHT INTO THAT LIKE THAT, IT WOULD JUST FOLLOW ME, WOULD IT?

YEAH, IT WOULD FOLLOW THE--FOLLOW THE LIGHT.

OK. CAN I TRY IT?

OF COURSE.

YES.

HEH!

GREAT.

OK, DANIELLE, IF I JUST PUT IT DOWN... OK. OVER TO YOU.

MARVELOUS.

SHALL I SWITCH IT ON?

YEAH, YOU SWITCH IT ON, AND I'LL SWITCH ON MY LIGHT.

BRILLIANT.

GEORGE: WITH TWO SENSES-- A LIGHT AND A TOUCH SENSOR, THIS TORTOISE APPEARS TO MOVE WITH AUTONOMY... WITH PURPOSE AND WITH SPONTANEITY.

THE THING THAT WAS UNEXPECTED FOR ME WAS I WAS TRYING TO GUIDE IT TOWARDS THE LIGHT AND MAKE IT DO SOMETHING, BUT IT LOOKED LIKE IT WAS ALMOST TRYING TO MAKE ITS OWN DECISIONS.

AND I THINK THIS IS WHAT GREY WALTER WANTED IT TO DO.

IT WANTED TO BEHAVE LIKE A CREATURE WHO DOESN'T ALWAYS MAKE THE RIGHT DECISIONS FIRST TIME.

WILLIAM GREY WALTER'S WORK WAS TRULY REVOLUTIONARY, DEVISING THE FIRST MACHINE THAT CAN REACT TO A STIMULUS AND THEN TAKE ACTION IN RESPONSE, LIKE AN ANIMAL.

NARRATOR: TAKE GREY WALTER'S APPROACH OF A MACHINE THAT RESPONDS TO ITS INPUT AND COMBINE IT WITH TURING'S THEORY OF THE UNIVERSAL COMPUTER AND YOU HAVE THE RECIPE FOR ROBOTIC MACHINES THAT CAN PRACTICALLY THINK ON THEIR OWN.

THE RECIPE WOULD BE PUT TO THE ULTIMATE TEST DECADES AFTER TURING AND WALTER'S BREAKTHROUGHS WHEN, IN 2011, A ROBOT JOURNEYED TO MARS, A PLACE SO DISTANT THAT THAT IT HAD TO BE ABLE TO MAKE DECISIONS ITSELF-- TO BE AUTONOMOUS.

JENNIFER TROSPER: MARS AND EARTH ARE FAR AWAY FROM EACH OTHER, AND THE TIME IT TAKES A RADIO SIGNAL TO GET FROM EARTH TO MARS CAN VARY FROM 10 T0 20 MINUTES ONE WAY, SO WE CAN'T REMOTE-CONTROL THESE ROVERS.

WE ACTUALLY HAVE TO MAKE THEM VERY SMART.

NARRATOR: BY 2012, THE MARS ROVER CURIOSITY WAS ABOUT TO ATTEMPT A DARING, DO-OR-DIE LANDING ON THE RED PLANET.

TO DO SO, THE ROBOTIC MISSION HAD TO MANAGE ITS OWN FATE WITHOUT DIRECT CONTROL FROM HOME.

TROSPER: LANDING ON MARS IS PRETTY TRICKY.

THE WAY THAT WE WILL RE-ENTER EARTH WITH THE SHUTTLE OR SOMETHING IS WE'LL USE THE ATMOSPHERE TO SLOW US DOWN, IT'LL HEAT UP THE TILES, AND THEN WE'LL USE A PARACHUTE AT THE END.

WE CAN'T DO THAT ON MARS COMPLETELY BECAUSE THE MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE WON'T SLOW US DOWN ENOUGH.

NARRATOR: MARS DOES HAVE AN ATMOSPHERE, BUT IT IS ONLY 1% OF THE PRESSURE WE HAVE ON EARTH.

THE LANDER, AN ADVANCED DESCENDANT OF GREY'S TORTOISE, HAD TO USE A SERIES OF SOPHISTICATED SYSTEMS TO MONITOR ITS SITUATION AND ACT ACCORDINGLY.

HURTLING TOWARDS MARS AT 13,000 MILES PER HOUR, CURIOSITY HAD TO HIT THE ATMOSPHERE AT PRECISELY THE RIGHT ANGLE.

TROSPER: SO WE DID USE THE THIN MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE TO SLOW US DOWN WITH THE HEAT SHIELD AS MUCH AS IT CAN.

NARRATOR: AT ABOUT TWICE THE SPEED OF SOUND, CURIOSITY HAD TO CHOOSE, BASED ON INPUT FROM ITS SENSORS, WHEN TO OPEN A PARACHUTE: TOO EARLY, AND THE CHUTE WOULD BE DESTROYED; TOO LATE, AND IT WOULD NOT STOP THE LANDER IN TIME.

NOW, CURIOSITY DROPPED THE HEAT SHIELD... AND WITH A CLEAR VIEW OF THE SURFACE, THE ROBOT HAD TO USE RADAR TO PRECISELY DETERMINE ITS ALTITUDE AND SPEED BEFORE CUTTING ITSELF LOOSE FROM THE PARACHUTE.

AFTER A MOMENT OF FREE-FALL, THE SYSTEM FIRED RETRO ROCKETS.

AS THOSE ROCKETS ARE FIRING, WE WANTED THE ROVER TO BE FAR AWAY FROM THEM...

SO WE DROP THE ROVER DOWN ON CABLES.

IT ALSO USES THOSE ROCKETS TO KIND OF DIRECT ITSELF TOWARDS THE LANDING SITE.

IT GENTLY SETS THE ROVER DOWN ON THE SURFACE.

THE DESCENT STAGE SEVERS THE CABLES... AND THEN FLIES AWAY TO LAND SOMEWHERE ELSE.

IT WORKED PRETTY MUCH PERFECTLY, SO MUCH SO THAT IN 2018, WE DID IT ALL OVER AGAIN WITH THE MARS INSIGHT LANDER.

THIS TIME, THE SEQUENCE WAS SLIGHTLY SIMPLER, THE SPACE CRAFT LANDING UNDER ITS OWN POWER.

AND WE HOPED THAT MANY MORE ROBOTIC MISSIONS WOULD FOLLOW CURIOSITY TO THE SURFACE OF THE RED PLANET.

WOMAN: TOUCHDOWN CONFIRMED.

[ALL CHEERING] NARRATOR: CURIOSITY AND INSIGHT PROVED THE VALUE OF AUTONOMOUS ROBOTICS IN SPACE, EVEN IF IT WAS OF A LIMITED KIND.

AFTER ALL, THEY WERE FOLLOWING A PRE-PROGRAMMED SEQUENCE.

BUT HERE ON EARTH, EVEN LIMITED AUTONOMY CAN BE VERY USEFUL, TOO.

BROOKS: I HAVE WORKED IN ROBOTICS MY WHOLE LIFE.

IN 1990, WE STARTED A COMPANY CALLED iROBOT, AND WE WERE INTERESTED IN BUILDING ROBOTS THAT COULD DO SOMETHING REAL IN THE WORLD.

FINALLY, IN 2002, WE CAME UP WITH TWO WINNERS.

ONE WAS THE ROOMBA, VACUUM-CLEANING ROBOT.

ANOTHER WAS THE PACKBOT...

WHICH WAS USED HEAVILY IN THE U.S. MILITARY FOR DEALING WITH ROADSIDE BOMBS, IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES IN IRAQ AND AFGHANISTAN.

WE HAD THOUSANDS OF THEM-- THOUSANDS, LITERALLY-- IN IRAQ AND AFGHANISTAN OPERATING EVERY SINGLE DAY FOR YEAR AFTER YEAR AFTER YEAR.

BROOKS: THE PACKBOT IS INTERESTING BECAUSE, AT ONE LEVEL, IT'S CONTROLLED BY A HUMAN OVER A RADIO LINK, TELLING IT TO GO AND DO THINGS.

BUT WHEN IT GETS OUT OF RADIO CONTACT, IT FIGURES OUT ITS WAY BACK TO LOOK FOR WHERE IT LAST HAD RADIO CONTACT, AND SO THERE'S LOTS OF LITTLE AUTONOMOUS BEHAVIORS.

PACKBOTS HAVE ALSO BEEN USED IN HOSTAGE SITUATIONS, ACTIVE SHOOTER SITUATIONS, BUT WHAT I'M MOST PROUD OF IS THAT, ABOUT A WEEK AFTER THE DISASTER IN FUKUSHIMA, WHEN THEY STILL DIDN'T KNOW WHAT WAS GOING ON IN THE NUCLEAR REACTORS, WE WERE ABLE TO GET A BUNCH OF PACKBOTS THERE, AND THEY WERE ABLE TO GO WHERE THE RADIATION WAS WAY TOO HIGH FOR HUMANS TO BE AND PUT A CAMERA ON SOME OF THE ANALOG INSTRUMENTS.

YOU KNOW, NORMALLY A HUMAN WOULD GO IN, THERE WAS NO DIGITAL CONNECTION, SO THE ROBOTS FORMED CHAINS OF WI-FI HOTSPOTS THAT JUMPED THE DATA BACK TO THE CONTROL CENTER.

AND THEY WERE THEN ABLE TO USE THAT INFORMATION TO KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT WHAT WAS GOING ON, AND IT WAS HELPFUL IN ACTIVELY SHUTTING DOWN THE REACTORS.

BROOKS: FOR THE LAST FEW YEARS, I'VE BEEN TRYING TO PUT ROBOTS INTO FACTORIES AT A LARGE SCALE.

PEOPLE SAY, "YOU KNOW, ROBOTS HAVE TAKEN ALL THE JOBS IN FACTORIES."

THAT'S JUST NOT TRUE.

WORLDWIDE, THERE'S ABOUT TWO MILLION ROBOTS IN FACTORIES, WHICH IS A TINY NUMBER COMPARED TO THE HUMAN WORKERS.

AND IN FACT, THERE'S A SEVERE SHORTAGE OF PEOPLE WANTING TO WORK IN FACTORIES.

I ACTUALLY THINK THAT WE'RE GOING TO NEED A LOT MORE ROBOTS THAN PEOPLE EXPECT.

NARRATOR: ONE OF THE GREAT CHALLENGES OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS IS SAFETY.

CONVENTIONAL ROBOTS MOVE FROM POSITION TO POSITION, ACCORDING TO THEIR PROGRAM-- A POTENTIAL HAZARD FOR ANY HUMAN IN THE WAY, AND SO THEY ARE OFTEN PLACED IN PROTECTIVE ENCLOSURES.

THESE POSITION-CONTROLLED ROBOTS, AS THEY ARE CALLED, HAVE BEEN IN USE FOR DECADES.

BUT A NEW GENERATION, AND A NEW REVOLUTION, IS TAKING SHAPE.

IT GOES ALL THE WAY BACK TO THE ORIGINAL DREAM OF THE MECHANICAL HELPER FORGED BY THE GODS.

AT THE AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE IN GERMANY, ENGINEERS ARE BUILDING A ROBOT THAT THEY HOPE WILL SATISFY THAT ANCIENT DREAM.

MAN: THE WHOLE IDEA OF BUILDING A HUMANOID ROBOT IS TO PUT THE MACHINE INTO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF A HUMAN.

OUR HUMANOID ROBOT IS CALLED TORO, WHICH IS AN ACRONYM FOR TORQUE-CONTROLLED HUMANOID ROBOT.

TORO IS ONE OF THE ONLY HUMANOID ROBOTS IN THE WORLD THAT IS ABLE TO EXPLICITLY CONTROL ITS TORQUES IN THE JOINTS, SO THESE ARE THE ROTATIONAL FORCES IN THE JOINTS.

HERE WE SEE TORO STANDING ON A WHOLE PILE OF MATTRESSES, AND IT'S KEEPING ITS BALANCE AUTOMATICALLY.

AS YOU CAN SEE, HERE IT'S STANDING FREELY.

THOSE STRAPS HERE ARE PURELY FOR TORO'S SAFETY, SO IN CASE SOMETHING GOES WRONG WITH THE EXPERIMENT, BUT THE STRAPS ARE NOT SUPPORTING ANY WEIGHT.

IN THE FUTURE, WE IMAGINE ROBOTS AND HUMANS COOPERATING LITERALLY HAND IN HAND.

I CAN INTERACT WITH TORO, PUSHING HIM, AND HE'S AUTOMATICALLY KEEPING HIS BALANCE.

TO SHOW YOU HOW WELL IT'S BEEN BALANCING, WE'LL JUST TURN IT OFF.

SEE?

IT FALLS.

IT'S HELD IN THE SAFETY STRAPS.

NARRATOR: IN THIS EXPERIMENT, TORO WILL ATTEMPT TO FIND A SMALL AIRPLANE COMPONENT AND ATTACH IT TO THE CORRECT LOCATION ON A MOCKUP OF AN AIRLINER FUSELAGE.

SO IT'S LOOKING FOR THE TABLE WHERE THIS PART IS LOCATED ON.

IT'S DOING THAT FULLY AUTOMATICALLY.

SO HE LOCATES THE PART.

NARRATOR: THIS WOULD BE A SIMPLE TASK FOR A HUMAN, BUT FOR A MACHINE, IT IS GOING TO TAKE SOME FIGURING OUT.

AT FIRST, TORO MAKES SEVERAL MISTAKES WHILE IT LEARNS THE ROPES.

[CHUCKLES] NARRATOR: BUT FINALLY, TORO IS READY TO SHOW US WHAT IT CAN DO.

ENGLSBERGER: GOOD JOB, TORO.

IN THE SCENARIO THAT WE TEST HERE, TORO CANNOT STEP CLOSER TO THE AIRPLANE SHELL, SO IT HAS TO GRAB ON THIS HANDLE HERE AND LEAN FORWARD.

THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT TASK FOR A ROBOT TO DO.

ENGLSBERGER: WELL DONE.

NARRATOR: TORO MIGHT SEEM SLOW AND PONDEROUS TODAY, BUT SPEED UP THE ACTION BY 2 OR 3 TIMES, AND THE FUTURE-- A FACTORY FULL OF HUMANS AND HUMANOIDS WORKING TOGETHER--IS ALMOST VISIBLE, EVEN IF THERE IS A LONG WAY TO GO.

BROOKS: DESPITE THE RECENT ADVANCES, THE REAL CHALLENGE IS THESE THINGS.

THESE THINGS THAT WE HAVE ON THE END OF OUR ARMS ARE AMAZING DEVICES, AND WE HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO BUILD ROBOT HANDS, AFTER 40 SOLID YEARS OF TRYING, WHICH COME TO EVEN 1% OF THE CAPABILITY OF A HUMAN HAND.

NARRATOR: GETTING SOPHISTICATED ROBOTS INTO OUR HOMES AND ABLE TO DO USEFUL TASKS IS STILL FRAUGHT WITH DIFFICULTY.

THE NEW GENERATIONS OF ROBOTS THAT WE MAY WANT TO HAVE IN OUR HOMES ARE GOING TO HAVE TO BE MUCH MORE AWARE OF PEOPLE AND BE ABLE TO INTERACT WITH PEOPLE.

AND I THINK WE WILL DEMAND THAT THEY BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND SPEECH, BUT WE'LL ALSO EXPECT THEM TO KNOW WHERE WE ARE AND NOT GET IN OUR WAY AND ANTICIPATE WHAT WE WANT THEM TO DO, AND WE'LL WANT TO KNOW THAT WE CAN ANTICIPATE WHAT THEY'RE ABOUT TO DO.

IT'LL BE A WHOLE NEW LEVEL OF SOCIAL INTERACTION.

NARRATOR: BUT HERE IN ITALY, A PROJECT CALLED iCUB AIMS TO TACKLE THE PROBLEMS ONE BY ONE.

THE KEY IS IN HOW THE ROBOT LEARNS ABOUT THE WORLD AROUND IT.

HEY, iCUB.

HELLO.

HAVE A LOOK AT THIS MUG.

LET ME HAVE A LOOK AT THE MUG.

MEIGS: iCUB AND I HAVE JUST MET, SO I'M HELPING iCUB FIGURE OUT WHAT THIS OBJECT LOOKS LIKE.

iCUB IS ACTUALLY TRACKING MY BODY.

THOSE LINES REPRESENT ITS INTERPRETATION OF MY SKELETON.

WHAT IT WANTS TO DO IS BE ABLE TO DISTINGUISH ME AND MY BODY FROM THE OBJECT.

USUALLY TAKES ABOUT 30 SECONDS FOR iCUB TO LEARN.

iCUB: EXCELLENT.

NOW I KNOW THE MUG.

SO I'VE TAUGHT iCUB NOT JUST TO RECOGNIZE THE OBJECT, BUT TO ASSOCIATE THE NAME WITH THE OBJECT.

NOW LET'S SEE IF WE CAN GET IT TO DISTINGUISH ONE OBJECT, LIKE THE MUG, FROM SOMETHING ELSE IN THE ENVIRONMENT.

WHAT IS CLOSE TO THE MUG?

iCUB: THE CLOSEST OBJECT IS THE SUNFLOWER.

SO THIS SHOWS YOU SOMETHING PRETTY EXTRAORDINARY: YOU CAN TEACH iCUB A NEW OBJECT, AND WITHIN SECONDS, IT HAS THE ABILITY TO GO INTO ITS MEMORY AND COMPARE IT TO SOME OTHER OBJECT THAT IT'S LEARNED IN THE PAST.

AND THIS IS REALLY CRUCIAL FOR ROBOTS.

IF THEY'RE GOING TO FUNCTION IN A HUMAN ENVIRONMENT-- THEY'RE GOING TO BE IN YOUR APARTMENT, TAKING THINGS OUT OF THE REFRIGERATOR-- THEY NEED TO BE ABLE TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ONE OBJECT AND ANOTHER, VERY MUCH THE WAY HUMANS DO IT, AND THIS IS THE BEGINNING OF THAT PROCESS.

MEIGS: SO THE KEY THING ABOUT THE iCUB IS THAT IT LEARNS.

WE DON'T THINK WE CAN PROGRAM ALL THE FEATURES AND FUNCTIONALITIES AND INTELLIGENCE THAT WE NEED FOR AN AUTONOMOUS ROBOT, SO THE BEST WAY IS ACTUALLY TO GO THROUGH LEARNING, SO HAVE THE ROBOT COLLECT ENOUGH DATA, LIKE VISION, LIKE TOUCH, LIKE EXPERIENCE WITH MANIPULATING OBJECTS AND LEARNING TO RECOGNIZE THEM AND MAKING A LOT OF MISTAKES, AND EVENTUALLY LEARNING HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS.

IT'S A BIT LIKE A CHILD; YOU LEARN THROUGH PLAY.

THE IDEA WITH THE ROBOT WAS EXACTLY THE SAME.

MEIGS: THIS VERSION OF iCUB HAS AN IMPROVED VISION SYSTEM THAT ALLOWS IT TO SENSE MOVEMENT AND, IN A SENSE, TO PAY ATTENTION TO THEM.

THAT MAY NOT BE THE PROPER SCIENTIFIC TERM, BUT THAT'S WHAT IT FEELS LIKE.

I'VE GOT THIS PADDLE, AND... ONCE THE iCUB SEES THE IMAGE THAT I'M MOVING IN FRONT OF IT, HE'LL TRACK THE PADDLE... AND FOLLOW IT WHEREVER I MOVE IT.

[PLAYING NOTES] NARRATOR: iCUB'S LEARNING SYSTEM IS NOT SPECIFIC TO ANY ONE TASK.

THAT MEANS IT CAN LEARN MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF THINGS... [PLAYS ONE NOTE] SUCH AS PLAYING THE PIANO.

[PLAYS ONE NOTE] AND ONCE ONE iCUB HAS LEARNED SOMETHING, LIKE TAI CHI, THAT LEARNING CAN BE SHARED WITH ALL OTHER iCUBS.

IN THE FUTURE, EVEN A BRAND-NEW ROBOT WILL COME WITH A VAST AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE PRE-INSTALLED.

THAT IS HOW ROBOTS WILL FINALLY BECOME COMMONPLACE.

I THINK ROBOTS ARE GOING TO BE ONE OF THOSE TECHNOLOGIES THAT SEEMS TO BE COMING ONLINE KIND OF SLOWLY, UNTIL ALL OF A SUDDEN, THEY'RE EVERYWHERE.

NARRATOR: SO WILL ROBOTS TAKE OVER THE WORLD?

MIGHT THEY, LIKE IN SO MANY MOVIES, RISE UP AGAINST US?

NOT EVERYONE THINKS IT WILL HAPPEN.

BROOKS: BEFORE WE HAVE SUPER-INTELLIGENT ROBOTS, WE WOULD HAVE QUITE INTELLIGENT ROBOTS, AND BEFORE THAT, WE'D HAVE SOMEWHAT INTELLIGENT ROBOTS.

IF THOSE ROBOTS WERE GOING TO BE EVIL, WELL, THOSE SOMEWHAT INTELLIGENT ROBOTS WOULD BE CERTAINLY REALLY ANNOYING AND REALLY RUDE TO US, SO THERE'D BE A LOT OF CO-EVOLUTION OF THINGS, AND THAT GETS MISSED BY LOOKING AT HOLLYWOOD MOVIES AND LEADS PEOPLE ASTRAY IN THINKING ABOUT THE FUTURE.

GEORGE: I'D LOVE TO SEE A ROBOT THAT COULD LOVE IN THE WAY THAT I LOVE MY FAMILY.

I CAN DEFINITELY SEE A FUTURE WHERE ROBOTS AND HUMANS ARE LIVING ALONGSIDE EACH OTHER, AND I THINK THAT WILL MAKE A BETTER FUTURE FOR HUMANS AS WELL.

NARRATOR: WHATEVER THE FUTURE HOLDS, A NEW AGE IS UPON US, THANKS TO ENGINEERS WORKING IN LABS WORLDWIDE, BUILDING ON THE BREAKTHROUGHS MADE DOWN THROUGH THE DECADES AND CENTURIES, ALL THE WAY BACK TO ANCIENT GREECE.

THAT'S BEAUTIFUL.

NARRATOR: HUMANITY MAY SOON HAVE WHAT SO MANY HAVE ALWAYS WANTED-- A BREAKTHROUGH THAT IS THE ROBOT.

NARRATOR: NEXT TIME ON "BREAKTHROUGH," THE STORY OF A MACHINE THAT TRULY CHANGED THE WORLD.

A TALE FULL OF EXTRAORDINARY ACCIDENTS AND BIZARRE CONNECTIONS.

IT WOULD TAKE AN ALLIANCE WITH A DANGEROUS PREDATOR, DEVASTATING FLOODS, EXPLODING CANNONS, AND A TRIP TO THE SLAUGHTERHOUSE TO GET THE ULTIMATE FREEDOM MACHINE--THE CAR.

TO ORDER "BREAKTHROUGH: THE IDEAS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD" ON DVD, VISIT SHOP PBS OR CALL 1-800-PLAY-PBS.

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